ISTANBUL
: FOUNDATION AND CONQUEST
Famous
Istanbul historian Jak Deleon writes about Istanbul in
his book named 'The Bosphorus: A Historical Guide ' :
''This
fabled city is divided by the Bosphorus strait. It lies
in both Europe and Asia. The European side is seperated
into two by a scimitar-shaped gulf called the Golden Horn.
The old town sprawls along one side, with its Byzantine
ramparts and Ottoman palaces facing the Marmara Sea. On
the other side, one can see the ancient Genoese port of
Galata and the more modern quarters beyond. The legendary
Bosphorus winds its way up to the Black Sea. It is this
garland of waters, which makes Istanbul. Its seven hills
are crowned with imperial monuments. It is a unique city.
The
legend of the foundation of Istanbul is derived from classical
mythology: Zeus fell in love with Io, the daughter of
Inachus. Inachus is the King of the City of Argos and
God of the River of Argos. The King of the Gods temporarily
transformed his beloved daughter into a heifer in order
to protect her from the wrath of his wife, Hera, Queen
of the Gods. In her wanderings Io crossed the Bosphorus,
giving the strait its name (''boos-foros'',''cow-ford'').
After reassuming her original form, she gave birth to
a girl, Keroessa. Later, Keroessa bore the son of Poseidon,
grandson of Gaea ( Mother Earth ) and Uranus ( Father
Sky ), son of Cronus, elder brother of Zeus and sovereign
deity of all waters from the Pillars of Hercules to the
Hellespont. Keroessa's son, Byzas the Magerian, in time
became the founder of Byzantium and named the Golden Horn
( Chrysokeras ) after his mother.
Following
the advice of the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, Byzas established
a colony at the tip of the Istanbul peninsula, today known
as the Seraglio Point. It is the Promentorium Bosphorium
of antiquity. It is where the Bosphorus and the Golden
Horn meet and flow into the Marmara ( 667 B.C. ). Almost
a millenium later, during the era of the Roman Emperor
Constantinus, Byzantium was renamed Constantinople ( 330
A.D. ). When captured by Mehmet the Conqueror, the city
became the capital of the Ottoman Empire assuming its
present name, Istanbul ( 1453 A.D. ).
Persians,
Macedonians, Lombards, Slavs, Avars, Bulgarians, Russians,
Goths, Huns, Pechenegs, Crusaders and Islamic armies besieged
Istanbul numerous times over the centuries. Five Arab
campaigns are mentioned in the chronicles:
1.
The Arab fleet, commanded by Abdullah Ebu Serh, defeated
the Byzantine navy off the coast of Phoenix ( Fenike )
in southwestern Anatolia. But could not reach Istanbul
(655 A.D.).
2.
Under the command of Halid bin Zeyd Ebu Eyyub el-Ensari,
the Arabs surrounded the city by land. Halid bin Zeyd
Ebu Eyyub el-Ensari was the ''Sancakdar'' ( Standard Bearer
) of the Prophet Muhammed. He was also known as ''Mihmandar-i
Resulullah'' ( Host of the Prophet ). He fell as his forces
attempted to conquer Istanbul. Eventually, the siege had
to be lifted ( 668 A.D. ).
3.
The Arab navy attacked Istanbul and held fast for seven
years ( 674-680 A.D. ).
4.
During the reign of Caliph Suleyman bin Abdulmelik, Arab
armies under the command of Mesleme bin Abdulmelik and
Abdullah bin Tayyib besieged Istanbul both by land and
sea. They advanced as far as the chain at the entrance
of the Golden Horn. The fighting along the ramparts was
fierce and the Arabs finally withdrew. They were recalled
by Caliph Omer bin Abdulaziz, successor to Suleyman bin
Abdulmelik. ( 715 A.D. ).
5.
The final Arab conquest to capture Istanbul took place
under the command of Harun-ur Rashid. The Arab army advanced
as far as Chrysopolis ( Uskudar ) on the Asian shore of
the Bosphorus. They eventually forced the Byzantines to
sign a treaty ( 782 A.D. ).
The
seven sieges of Istanbul recounted in Ottoman history
date as far back as the 14th century A.D.:
1.
Ottoman Sultan Yildirim Beyazid besieged the city for
seven months. The siege was altered to form a blockade
as the sudden threat of a Hungarian attack emerged. The
Byzantines, however, accepted certain conditions. They
included the creation of a Turkish quarter within the
city, the establishment of a Turkish court with a judge
appointed by the Ottoman Sultan, the construction of a
mosque and the foundation of a Turkish garrison on the
northern shores of the Golden Horn. In addition, the Ottomans
would receive an annual tribute of 10.000 gold pieces
( 1391 A.D. ).
2.
The Byzantines refused to accept some of the conditions
put forth in 1391. Yildirim Beyazid's army surrounded
Istanbul once more. As the blockade turned into a siege,
news reached the Sultan that the Crusaders were marching
towards the Balkans. Yildirim Beyazid lifted the siege
and led his troops into the Balkans to confront the Crusaders
( 1395 A.D. ).
3.
Having defeated the Crusaders, Yildirim Beyazid once more
turned his attention to Istanbul. In order to prevent
military help from reaching the Byzantines via the Black
Sea, he had the Anatolian Fortress ( Anadolu Hisari )
constructed at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus on
the Asian side. Finally the Byzantines accepted all the
conditions laid out in the siege of 1391. The annual tribute
was raised to 30.000 gold pieces ( 1397 A.D. ).
4.
The Ottomans' conditions were weighing heavily upon the
Byzantine Emperor's offers and he asked the Crusaders
for assistance. Having received this news, Yildirim Beyazid
immediately surrounded Istanbul. The city almost fell
under heavy cannon fire when Timur, the Mongolian King,
began sacking Eastern Anatolia. Once more, the Ottoman
Sultan had to divert his army away from Byzantium.
5.
The feud between the two heirs to the Ottoman throne,
Prince Musa and Prince Mehmet, served not only to weaken
the Ottoman Empire but to further strengthen Byzantium's
position. As Prince Musa besieged Istanbul, Prince Mehmet
attacked his brother's forces. Thus, the siege had to
be lifted ( 1412 A.D. ).
6.
Murat II laid a siege the moment he ascended the Ottoman
throne. Just as Byzantine resistance was broken and Istanbul
had almost capitulated, a major rebellion broke out in
Anatolia. A pretender to the Ottoman throne, Sultan Murat's
younger brother, Prince Mustafa, started it. Once more,
as brother marched against brother, the Byzantines were
left to their own devices ( 1422 A.D. ).
7.
The seventh and final siege of Istanbul was carried out
under the command of Mehmed II, the Ottoman Sultan historically
known as Mehmet the Conqueror. Mehmet the Conqueror had
the Rumeli Fortress ( Rumeli Hisari ) constructed on the
European shore of the Bosphorus, directly across from
the Anatolia Fortress, thus cutting off all Black Sea
traffic in and out of the city. Nevertheless, Cardinal
Isidore of Kiev, the Pope's envoy, arrived in Istanbul
to seal the union between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.
This union, proclaimed by Constantinus in Haghia Sophia
( the Church of Holy Wisdom ), caused unrest among the
devoutly Orthodox Byzantines. Popular opinion swayed strongly
against the Emperor. Meanwhile, Mehmet the Conqueror moved
his galleons over the land by means of specially constructed
sleds and pulleys. The Byzantines woke up one morning
to find the Golden Horn invaded by the Ottoman navy. Enormous
shell-holes were torn in the ramparts through which the
Sultan's soldiers entered the city and, by means of a
temporary bridge built across the Golden Horn, they crossed
into the heart of Genoese Galata. The entire battle took
place between April 6 and May 29, and on this final day,
Istanbul, once the capital of the Byzantine Empire, fell
to the Turks. Mehmet the Conqueror, Sultan of the Ottoman
Empire, was 21 years old and the city was 2120 years old
( 1453 A.D. ). ''
